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Nondestructive inspection methods~ndi: 768P cd (r.2000)
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NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION METHODS (NDI)
Technical Manual, 768 pages (October 1997; with change March 2000)
1. Nondestructive Inspection (NDI) is the inspection of a structure or component in any manner that will not impair its future usefulness. The purpose of the inspection may be to detect f laws, measure geometric characteristics, determine material structure or composition, or characterize physical, electrical or thermal properties, without causing any change in the part. The NDI methods include the following:
2. This publication covers the theory and general applications of the various NDI methods. For specific information on the operation or maintenance of a particular item of NDI equipment, consult the appropriate Technical Manual.
3. NDI methods in the hands of a trained and experienced technician are capable of detecting flaws or defects with a high degree of accuracy and reliability. It is important that maintenance engineering personnel are fully knowledgeable of the capabilities of each method but it is equally important that they recognize the limitations of the methods. No NDI method should ever be considered conclusive. Often a defect indication developed by one method must be confirmed by another method to be considered reliable. Furthermore, the equipment is highly sensitive and is capable of detecting discontinuities and anomalies that may be of no consequence in the service for which a component is used. Limits for acceptance and rejection are thus as much a part of an inspection as the method itself. As an example, ultrasonic inspection equipment is fully capable of detecting normal grain boundaries in some cast alloys. The inspection criteria must be designed to overlook these ‘‘normal’’ indications and to discriminate in favor of the discontinuities that will affect the service of the component.
1.1 INSPECTION FACILITY.............................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.2 Notes for Floor Plan....................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.2 PERSONNEL TRAINING / QUALIFICATION / CERTIFICATION......................................... 1-5
1.2.1 Guidelines...................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.2.2 Requirements ................................................................................................................................ 1-5
1.2.3 Special Task Certification and Recurring Training.................................................................... 1-5
1.3 REPORTING NEW / IMPROVED NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES.......................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.1 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.2 Authority ....................................................................................................................................... 1-7
1.3.3 Scope .............................................................................................................................................. 1-7
1.3.4 Responsibilities .............................................................................................................................. 1-8
1.3.5 Entries on AFTO Form 242 .......................................................................................................... 1-9
1.4 PROCESS CONTROL ................................................................................................................. 1-14
1.4.1 Reason for Process Control ......................................................................................................... 1-14
1.4.2 Scope of Process Control.............................................................................................................. 1-14
1.4.3 Scope of Documentation Requirements...................................................................................... 1-14
1.4.4 Responsibilities ............................................................................................................................ 1-15
1.4.5 Suggested Documentation Method ............................................................................................. 1-15
1.5 PENETRANT PROCESS CONTROL......................................................................................... 1-20
1.5.1 Need for Process Quality............................................................................................................. 1-20
1.5.2 Process Control Requirements.................................................................................................... 1-22
1.5.3 Control of New Materials ............................................................................................................ 1-29
1.5.4 Monitoring Process Performance (Stationary Inspection Units).............................................. 1-31
1.5.5 Testing of Material in Use .......................................................................................................... 1-34
1.6 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION PROCESS CONTROL .............................................. 1-43
1.6.1 Purpose and Scope ....................................................................................................................... 1-43
1.6.2 General ........................................................................................................................................ 1-43
1.6.3 Causes of Materials Degradation ............................................................................................... 1-43
1.6.4 Frequency of Process Control...................................................................................................... 1-44
1.6.5 Material Requirements................................................................................................................ 1-44
1.6.6 Safety Requirements................................................................................................................... 1-45
1.6.7 Magnetic Particle Equipment / System Requirements ............................................................. 1-45
1.6.8 Process Requirements.................................................................................................................. 1-46
1.6.9 Quantitative Quality Indicators ................................................................................................. 1-47
1.6.10 System Effectiveness Check........................................................................................................ 1-48
1.6.11 Ammeter Check........................................................................................................................... 1-49
1.6.12 Quick Break Tester...................................................................................................................... 1-50
1.6.13 Establishing a Field Indicator Reference Standard .................................................................. 1-50
1.6.14 Checking the In Use Field Indicators ..................................................................................... 1-50.1
1.8 ULTRASONIC PROCESS CONTROL REQUIREMENTS....................................................... 1-52
1.8.1 The Ultrasonic Process Control Requirements.......................................................................... 1-52
1.8.2 Calibration of Equipment............................................................................................................ 1-57
1.9 PROCESS CONTROL FOR RADIOGRAPHY ........................................................................... 1-71
1.9.1 Scope and Purpose ....................................................................................................................... 1-71
1.9.2 Radiographic Process Control Requirements............................................................................. 1-71
2.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.2 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.3 Background.................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.4 Capabilities of Penetrant Inspection ............................................................................................ 2-2
2.1.5 Basic Penetrant Process ................................................................................................................ 2-2
2.1.6 Leak Detection ............................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.1.7 Personnel Requirements................................................................................................................ 2-3
2.1.8 Equipment Requirements.............................................................................................................. 2-3
2.1.9 Advantages and Capabilities of Liquid Penetrant Inspection.................................................... 2-5
2.1.10 Disadvantages and Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Inspection ............................................... 2-5
2.1.11 Limitations on Applications of Penetrant Inspection ................................................................. 2-6
2.2 BASIC PENETRANT PROCESS.................................................................................................. 2-7
2.2.1 Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.2.2 Types of Penetrant........................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.2.3 Methods of Penetrant Removal..................................................................................................... 2-8
2.2.4 Developers ..................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.2.5 Classification of Penetrant Materials and Processes.................................................................. 2-9
2.2.6 Qualified Products List (QPL) .................................................................................................... 2-12
2.2.7 Basic Penetrant Processes........................................................................................................... 2-12
2.2.8 Sensitivity.................................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.3 PRETESTING, CLEANING, PRECLEANING AND POSTCLEANING................................. 2-18
2.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 2-18
2.3.2 Pretesting .................................................................................................................................... 2-18
2.3.3 Cleaning....................................................................................................................................... 2-19
2.3.4 Contaminants and Soils .............................................................................................................. 2-20
2.3.5 Cleaning Processes...................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.3.6 Mechanical Working Processes................................................................................................... 2-26
2.3.7 Precleaning.................................................................................................................................. 2-27
2.3.8 Postcleaning After Penetrant Inspection................................................................................... 2-28
2.4 MECHANISM, PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF PENETRANT ................................ 2-30
2.4.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 2-30
2.4.2 Requirements of a Penetrant ...................................................................................................... 2-30
2.4.3 Mechanism of Penetration .......................................................................................................... 2-30
2.4.4 Penetrant Properties ................................................................................................................... 2-33
2.4.5 Application of Penetrant ............................................................................................................. 2-37
2.5 PENETRANT REMOVAL........................................................................................................... 2-46
2.5.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 2-46
2.5.2 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 2-46
2.5.3 Factors Inf luencing Removability .............................................................................................. 2-47
2.5.4 Removal of Water Washable Penetrant, Method A .................................................................. 2-48
2.5.5 Removal of Postemulsifiable Penetrant, Methods B and D ..................................................... 2-52
2.5.6 Removal of Penetrants with Solvent, Method C ....................................................................... 2-61
2.6 DEVELOPERS............................................................................................................................ 2-62
2.6.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 2-62
2.6.2 Fundamentals .............................................................................................................................. 2-62
2.6.3 Dry Developer .............................................................................................................................. 2-65
2.6.4 Water Suspended (Wet-Aqueous) Developer ............................................................................. 2-66
2.6.5 Water Soluble Developer............................................................................................................. 2-67
2.6.6 Nonaqueous Solvent Suspended Developers.............................................................................. 2-69
2.6.7 Developer Dwell ........................................................................................................................... 2-70
2.7 INSPECTION AND INTERPRETATION.................................................................................. 2-73
2.7.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 2-73
2.7.2 General ........................................................................................................................................ 2-73
2.7.3 Personnel ..................................................................................................................................... 2-73
2.7.4 Lighting ....................................................................................................................................... 2-74
2.7.5 Inspection Conditions .................................................................................................................. 2-82
2.7.6 Inspection, Interpretation and Evaluation ................................................................................ 2-83
2.8 SPECIAL PURPOSE MATERIALS............................................................................................ 2-91
2.8.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 2-91
2.8.2 Oxygen Compatible Penetrants .................................................................................................. 2-91
2.8.3 Low Sulfur, Low Chlorine Penetrant Systems .......................................................................... 2-92
2.8.4 High Temperature Penetrant Materials .................................................................................... 2-93
2.8.5 Dye Precipitation Penetrant Systems ........................................................................................ 2-93
2.8.6 Reversed Fluorescence Method................................................................................................... 2-93
2.8.7 Thixotropic Penetrant.................................................................................................................. 2-93
2.8.8 Dilution Expansion Developers................................................................................................... 2-93
2.8.9 Plastic Film Developers............................................................................................................... 2-94
3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.1 Purpose of MPI.............................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.2 Limitation of Magnetic Particle Inspection ................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.3 Discontinuity Versus Defect.......................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1.4 Magnetization................................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1.5 Basic Terminology......................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.1.6 Magnetic Field Characteristics ..................................................................................................... 3-3
3.1.7 Current Sources for Generation Magnetic Field ......................................................................... 3-9
3.1.8 Ferromagnetic Material Characteristics .................................................................................... 3-10
3.1.9 Magnetizing Equipment .............................................................................................................. 3-13
3.2 PRE- AND POST-MPI CLEANING & PRE-MPI DISASSEMBLY.......................................... 3-18
3.2.1 Pre-Inspection Cleaning .............................................................................................................. 3-18
3.2.2 Considerations when Selecting a Cleaning Process .................................................................. 3-18
3.2.3 Typical Cleaning Methods........................................................................................................... 3-18
3.2.4 Surface Preparation.................................................................................................................... 3-19
3.2.5 Post Inspection Cleaning............................................................................................................. 3-20
3.2.6 Disassembly Requirements ......................................................................................................... 3-21
3.3 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION TECHNIQUES.......................................................... 3-22
3.3.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 3-22
3.3.2 Factors Determining the Choice of Technique .......................................................................... 3-22
3.3.3 Technique Variations................................................................................................................... 3-22
3.3.4 Types of Electric Current ............................................................................................................ 3-22
3.3.5 Particles ....................................................................................................................................... 3-25
3.3.6 Suspensions ................................................................................................................................. 3-26
3.3.7 Methods of Particle Application.................................................................................................. 3-26
3.3.8 Techniques for Current/Particle Application ............................................................................. 3-26
3.3.9 Magnetic Field............................................................................................................................. 3-29
3.3.10 Sensitivity Level .......................................................................................................................... 3-31
3.3.11 Circular Magnetization................................................................................................................ 3-32
3.3.12 Longitudinal Magnetization........................................................................................................ 3-35
3.3.13 Equipment ................................................................................................................................... 3-43
3.3.14 Special Methods ........................................................................................................................... 3-45
3.4 PORTABLE MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INSPECTION TECHNIQUES ....................... 3-49
3.4.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 3-49
3.4.2 Capabilities and Limitations....................................................................................................... 3-49
3.4.3 Equipment ................................................................................................................................... 3-50
3.4.4 Technique .................................................................................................................................... 3-51
3.4.5 Applications................................................................................................................................. 3-52
3.5 MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION MATERIALS AND RESPECTIVE
METHODS.............................................................................................................................. 3-53
3.5.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 3-53
3.5.2 Particle Properties and Their Effects......................................................................................... 3-54
3.5.3 Media Selection ............................................................................................................................ 3-58
3.5.4 Current / Particle Application Techniques ................................................................................ 3-59
3.5.5 Dry Powder Magnetic Particles .................................................................................................. 3-60
3.5.6 Wet Visible Particles ................................................................................................................... 3-65
3.5.7 Wet Fluorescent Method ............................................................................................................. 3-72
3.6 DEMAGNETIZATION................................................................................................................ 3-76
3.6.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 3-76
3.6.2 Purpose ........................................................................................................................................ 3-76
3.6.3 Principles of Operation................................................................................................................ 3-76
3.6.4 Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 3-77
3.6.5 Methods ....................................................................................................................................... 3-79
3.6.6 Equipment and Procedures ......................................................................................................... 3-80
3.6.7 Limitations .................................................................................................................................. 3-83
3.6.8 Special Techniques...................................................................................................................... 3-83
3.6.9 Measuring Residual Leakage Field Intensities ......................................................................... 3-84
3.7 FORMATION OF DISCONTINUITIES AND THEIR MPI INDICATIONS........................... 3-88
3.7.1 Iron and Steel Manufacturing Processes ................................................................................... 3-88
3.7.3 Basic Steps of Inspection............................................................................................................. 3-91
3.7.4 Classes of Discontinuities............................................................................................................ 3-95
3.7.5 Non-Relevant Indications.......................................................................................................... 3-107
3.8 METHODS OF RECORDING MPI INDICATIONS ............................................................... 3-112
3.8.1 General ...................................................................................................................................... 3-112
3.8.2 Types of Records ........................................................................................................................ 3-113
3.9 MAGNETIC RUBBER INSPECTION METHOD.................................................................... 3-114
3.9.1 Description................................................................................................................................. 3-114
3.9.2 Safety Precautions ..................................................................................................................... 3-115
3.9.3 Gel Time, Pot Life and Cure Time ........................................................................................... 3-115
3.9.4 Magnetic Rubber Inspection Procedure ................................................................................... 3-115
3.9.5 Post Inspection Procedures ....................................................................................................... 3-130
4.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Definition of Eddy Currents ......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 Inspection with Eddy Currents..................................................................................................... 4-2
4.1.3 Eddy Current Inspection Techniques........................................................................................... 4-2
4.1.4 Inspection Applications ................................................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.5 Electrical Conductivity .................................................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.6 Magnetic Permeability................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.1.7 Geometry ....................................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.8 Lift Off and Fill Factor ................................................................................................................. 4-3
4.1.9 Flaw Detection ............................................................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.10 Components of an Eddy Current Inspection System .................................................................. 4-3
4.1.11 Limitations of Eddy Current Method........................................................................................... 4-4
4.2 GENERATION OF AND FACTORS AFFECTING EDDY CURRENTS................................... 4-5
4.2.1 Generation of Eddy Currents........................................................................................................ 4-5
4.2.2 Variables Affecting Eddy Currents .............................................................................................. 4-6
4.2.3 Intensity and Distribution of Eddy Currents ............................................................................ 4-14
4.3 ANALYSIS OF EDDY CURRENT SIGNALS............................................................................ 4-16
4.3.1 Overview of Signal Detection, Processing and Display ............................................................ 4-16
4.3.2 Impedance.................................................................................................................................... 4-18
4.3.3 Impedance Diagrams ................................................................................................................... 4-23
4.3.4 Heat Treat Condition or Hardness............................................................................................. 4-29
4.3.5 Impedance Plane Analysis .......................................................................................................... 4-33
4.3.6 Modulation Analysis .................................................................................................................... 4-34
4.4 TEST SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................... 4-37
4.4.1 Eddy Current Systems ................................................................................................................ 4-37
4.4.2 Probes (Coil Assemblies) - General ............................................................................................ 4-37
4.4.3 Eddy Current Instruments.......................................................................................................... 4-41
4.5 GENERAL APPLICATIONS - FLAW DETECTION ................................................................ 4-48
4.5.1 Requirements for Eddy Current Flaw Detection....................................................................... 4-48
4.5.2 Test Systems ............................................................................................................................... 4-49
4.5.3 Lift Off Effects............................................................................................................................ 4-52
4.5.4 Lift Off Compensation Methods ................................................................................................. 4-52
4.5.5 Effects of Crack Location on Detectability ................................................................................ 4-55
4.5.6 Effects of Scanning Techniques on Detection............................................................................ 4-57
4.5.7 Reference Standards for Cracks ................................................................................................. 4-59
4.5.8 Evaluation of Crack Indications ................................................................................................. 4-65
4.5.9 Effect of Scan Rate and Pattern................................................................................................. 4-66
4.6 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - FLAW DETECTION ................................................................... 4-67
4.6.1 Fastener Holes Removable Fasteners ........................................................................................ 4-67
4.6.2 Openings, Large Holes, and Cutouts.......................................................................................... 4-69
4.6.3 Fastener Holes Nonremovable Fasteners .................................................................................. 4-70
4.6.4 Fillets and Rounded Corner........................................................................................................ 4-71
4.6.5 Corrosion...................................................................................................................................... 4-71
4.7 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT ......................................... 4-73
4.7.2 Applications of Conductivity Measurement............................................................................... 4-78
4.7.3 Test Equipment........................................................................................................................... 4-79
4.7.4 Effects of Variations in Material Properties.............................................................................. 4-80
4.7.5 Effects of Variations in Test Conditions .................................................................................... 4-81
4.7.6 Conductivity Reference Standards ............................................................................................. 4-82
4.7.7 Inspection Procedures.................................................................................................................. 4-83
4.8 SPECIFIC APPLICATION - THICKNESS MEASUREMENT ................................................ 4-84
4.8.1 Criteria for Application ............................................................................................................... 4-84
4.8.2 Measurement of Total Metal Thickness..................................................................................... 4-85
4.8.3 Measurement of Nonconductive Coatings.................................................................................. 4-89
4.9 ADVANCES IN ELECTROMAGNETIC TEST METHODS..................................................... 4-91
4.9.1 General Improvements ................................................................................................................ 4-91
4.9.2 Techniques Available for Use ..................................................................................................... 4-91
4.9.3 Developmental Techniques ......................................................................................................... 4-92
4.9.4 Application of Advanced Techniques.......................................................................................... 4-93
5.1 GENERAL ULTRASONIC PRINCIPLES.................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Characteristics of Ultrasonic Energy ........................................................................................... 5-1
5.1.2 Generation and Receiving of Ultrasonic Vibrations.................................................................... 5-1
5.1.3 Basic Ultrasonic Inspection........................................................................................................... 5-2
5.1.4 Ultrasonic Vibration Modes .......................................................................................................... 5-6
5.1.5 Refraction and Mode Conversion.................................................................................................. 5-8
5.1.6 Ultrasonic System Variables....................................................................................................... 5-11
5.1.7 Test Part Variables...................................................................................................................... 5-16
5.1.8 Discontinuity Variables ............................................................................................................... 5-19
5.2 ULTRASONIC EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS.................................................................... 5-20
5.2.1 Basic Ultrasonic Instruments ..................................................................................................... 5-20
5.2.2 Search Units / Transducers......................................................................................................... 5-28
5.2.3 Couplants..................................................................................................................................... 5-40
5.3 ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUES................................................................................................... 5-41
5.3.1 Guidelines for Inspector Familiarization ................................................................................... 5-41
5.3.2 Contact and Immersion ............................................................................................................... 5-41
5.3.3 Common Inspection Methods...................................................................................................... 5-41
5.3.4 Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) ....................................................................................... 5-46
5.3.5 Transfer ....................................................................................................................................... 5-48
5.3.6 Evaluation of Discontinuity Indications..................................................................................... 5-53
5.3.7 Technique Development .............................................................................................................. 5-60
5.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION OF BONDED STRUCTURES.................................................. 5-62
5.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 5-62
5.4.2 Reference Standards.................................................................................................................... 5-63
5.4.3 Inspection Coverage..................................................................................................................... 5-65
5.4.4 Inspection Methods for Bonded Structures................................................................................ 5-66
5.4.5 Methods Used with Basic Ultrasonic Instruments ................................................................... 5-68
5.4.6 Methods Associated with Instruments Dedicated to Bond Inspection .................................... 5-76
5.5 ULTRASONIC THICKNESS MEASUREMENT....................................................................... 5-80
5.5.1 Applications................................................................................................................................. 5-80
5.5.2 General Principles ....................................................................................................................... 5-80
5.5.3 Equipment and Materials ........................................................................................................... 5-81
5.5.4 Test Part Preparation.................................................................................................................. 5-83
5.5.5 Special Considerations ................................................................................................................ 5-83
5.5.6 Calibration and Measurement .................................................................................................... 5-83
5.6 ULTRASONIC LEAK TESTING ................................................................................................ 5-84
5.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 5-84
5.6.2 Equipment ................................................................................................................................... 5-85
5.6.3 Calibration and Testing............................................................................................................... 5-85
6 BASIC FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
6 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.2 Properties of X-Rays and Gamma Rays....................................................................................... 6-2
6.1.3 Where to Use Radiography ........................................................................................................... 6-5
6.1.4 Unique Properties of Gamma Rays .............................................................................................. 6-6
6.2 X-RAY GENERATORS.................................................................................................................. 6-6
6.2.1 Definition....................................................................................................................................... 6-6
6.2.2 Basic Requirements for Production of X-Rays............................................................................. 6-7
6.2.3 Effects of Voltage and Amperage on X-Ray Production ............................................................. 6-9
6.2.4 X-Ray Generators........................................................................................................................ 6-10
6.2.5 Practical Considerations When Choosing Equipment .............................................................. 6-16
6.2.6 Considerations When Operating X-Ray Equipment ................................................................. 6-18
6.3 ISOTOPE RADIATION SOURCES............................................................................................ 6-19
6.3.1 Energy Spectra............................................................................................................................ 6-19
6.3.2 Source Strength ........................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.3.3 Focal Spot Size ............................................................................................................................. 6-19
6.3.4 Decay Characteristics .................................................................................................................. 6-19
6.3.5 Isotope Sensitivity....................................................................................................................... 6-19
6.3.6 Isotope Cameras.......................................................................................................................... 6-20
6.3.7 Maintenance ................................................................................................................................ 6-20
6.4 FILMS, FILM HOLDERS AND SCREENS............................................................................... 6-20
6.4.1 Films ............................................................................................................................................ 6-20
6.4.2 Cassettes and Film Holders ........................................................................................................ 6-33
6.4.3 Screens......................................................................................................................................... 6-35
6.5 INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATERIAL.............................................................. 6-37
6.5.1 Absorption Mechanisms .............................................................................................................. 6-37
6.5.2 Real Life Absorbers...................................................................................................................... 6-40
6.5.3 White Spectrum ........................................................................................................................... 6-40
6.5.4 Diffraction Patterns..................................................................................................................... 6-41
6.5.5 Material Contrast ........................................................................................................................ 6-41
6.6 SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES............................................................................. 6-42
6.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 6-42
6.6.2 Special Purpose Techniques........................................................................................................ 6-42
6.6.3 Special Imaging Methods ............................................................................................................ 6-47
6.6.4 Computed Tomography (CT)....................................................................................................... 6-49
6.6.5 Neutron Radiography .................................................................................................................. 6-50
6.7 EFFECTIVE RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTIONS....................................................................... 6-50
6.7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................. 6-50
6.7.2 Factors Affecting Image Quality ................................................................................................ 6-50
6.7.3 Radiographic Sensitivity ............................................................................................................. 6-63
6.7.4 Technique Charts......................................................................................................................... 6-69
6.7.5 Industrial Radiographic Film Characteristics ........................................................................... 6-74
6.7.6 Developing Theory ....................................................................................................................... 6-74
6.7.7 Developing Solutions ................................................................................................................... 6-74
6.7.8 Stop Bath Solution....................................................................................................................... 6-76
6.7.9 Fixing Solution............................................................................................................................ 6-76
6.7.10 Washing ....................................................................................................................................... 6-77
6.7.11 Drying .......................................................................................................................................... 6-78
6.7.12 Dark Room Equipment................................................................................................................ 6-78
6.7.13 Preliminary Checks ..................................................................................................................... 6-80
6.7.14 Developing Procedure .................................................................................................................. 6-80
6.7.15 Testing Developer Activity .......................................................................................................... 6-82
6.7.16 Automatic Film Processing ......................................................................................................... 6-83
6.7.17 Silver Recovery............................................................................................................................ 6-85
6.7.18 Film Reproduction Technique..................................................................................................... 6-85
6.7.19 Film Artifacts ............................................................................................................................... 6-86
6.7.20 Care of Radiographs ................................................................................................................. 6-88.1
6.8 RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION...................................................................................... 6-89
6.8.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 6-89
6.8.2 Radiographic Image Quality ....................................................................................................... 6-89
6.8.3 Sensitivity.................................................................................................................................... 6-89
6.8.4 Definition or Detail...................................................................................................................... 6-90
6.8.5 Density......................................................................................................................................... 6-92
6.8.6 Contrast ....................................................................................................................................... 6-93
6.8.7 Fog................................................................................................................................................ 6-93
6.8.8 Distortion and Magnification...................................................................................................... 6-93
6.8.9 Kilovoltage and Processing ......................................................................................................... 6-93
6.8.10 Viewing and Reading................................................................................................................... 6-93
6.8.11 Viewing Conditions..................................................................................................................... 6-93
6.8.12 Reading Radiographs................................................................................................................... 6-96
6.8.13 Typical Radiographic Discontinuities......................................................................................... 6-97
6.8.14 Castings ....................................................................................................................................... 6-97
6.8.15 Casting Defects .......................................................................................................................... 6-100
6.8.16 Welds.......................................................................................................................................... 6-101
6.8.17 Welding Defects and Conditions............................................................................................... 6-102
6.8.18 Spot Welds................................................................................................................................. 6-105
6.8.19 Service Inspection ...................................................................................................................... 6-106
6.8.20 Radiographic Standards ............................................................................................................ 6-107
6.9 SCOPE AND PURPOSE ........................................................................................................... 6-108
6.9.1 Responsibilities (Air Force/Navy) ............................................................................................. 6-109
6.9.2 Responsibilities (Army) ............................................................................................................. 6-110
6.9.3 Qualifications of Industrial Radiographers ............................................................................. 6-114
6.9.4 Possession and Use of Gamma Ray Sources............................................................................ 6-118
6.9.5 Radiation Safety Monitors ........................................................................................................ 6-119
6.9.6 Radiation Safety Monitor Assistants........................................................................................ 6-119
6.9.7 Radiation Protection Surveys.................................................................................................... 6-120
6.9.8 Distribution and Retention ....................................................................................................... 6-122
6.9.9 Exposure to Radiation ............................................................................................................... 6-123
6.9.10 Measuring Exposures Rates: Ionization Chamber Type Survey Instruments ................... 6-125
6.9.11 Calibration and Use of Radiation Survey Instruments .......................................................... 6-128
6.9.12 Personnel Monitoring Devices .................................................................................................. 6-129
6.9.13 Personnel Monitoring Requirements........................................................................................ 6-132
6.9.14 Dose Reporting and Recording Procedures.............................................................................. 6-133
6.9.15 Suspected Overexposure of Ionizing Radiation ....................................................................... 6-135
6.9.16 Standard Department of Defense Industrial X-Ray Radiographic Equipment..................... 6-139
6.9.17 Classification and Selection of Radiographic Installations .................................................... 6-140
6.9.18 Protective Installations or Shielded Installations................................................................... 6-141
6.9.19 Design or Modification of Installations.................................................................................... 6-152
6.9.20 Structural Details of Protective Barriers................................................................................. 6-153
6.10 RT REFERENCES..................................................................................................................... 6-155
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................................................ 1
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